The hunt for rna polymerase ii elongation factors: a historical perspective

Nature

The hunt for rna polymerase ii elongation factors: a historical perspective"


Play all audios:

Loading...

ABSTRACT The discovery of the three eukaryotic nuclear RNA polymerases paved the way for serious biochemical investigations of eukaryotic transcription and the identification of eukaryotic


transcription factors. Here we describe this adventure from our vantage point, with a focus on the hunt for factors that regulate elongation by RNA polymerase II. Access through your


institution Buy or subscribe This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution ACCESS OPTIONS Access through your institution Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio


journals Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription $29.99 / 30 days cancel any time Learn more Subscribe to this journal Receive 12 print issues and online access $209.00 per


year only $17.42 per issue Learn more Buy this article * Purchase on SpringerLink * Instant access to full article PDF Buy now Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated


during checkout ADDITIONAL ACCESS OPTIONS: * Log in * Learn about institutional subscriptions * Read our FAQs * Contact customer support SIMILAR CONTENT BEING VIEWED BY OTHERS STRUCTURAL


INSIGHTS INTO NUCLEAR TRANSCRIPTION BY EUKARYOTIC DNA-DEPENDENT RNA POLYMERASES Article 03 May 2022 TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS MODULATE RNA POLYMERASE CONFORMATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM Article Open


access 22 March 2022 STRUCTURAL INSIGHTS INTO TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF HUMAN RNA POLYMERASE III Article 08 February 2021 REFERENCES * Thummel, C. S., Burtis, K. C. & Hogness, D. S.


Spatial and temporal patterns of E74 transcription during _Drosophila_ development. _Cell_ 61, 101–111 (1990). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Jonkers, I., Kwak, H. & Lis, J. T.


Genome-wide dynamics of Pol II elongation and its interplay with promoter proximal pausing, chromatin, and exons. _eLife_ 3, e02407 (2014). Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  *


Saponaro, M. et al. RECQL5 controls transcript elongation and suppresses genome instability associated with transcription stress. _Cell_ 157, 1037–1049 (2014). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed


Central  Google Scholar  * Saunders, A., Core, L. J. & Lis, J. T. Breaking barriers to transcription elongation. _Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol._ 7, 557–567 (2006). Article  CAS  PubMed 


Google Scholar  * Tamm, I., Kikuchi, T., Darnell, J. E. Jr. & Salditt-Georgieff, M. Short capped hnRNA precursor chains in HeLa cells: continued synthesis in the presence of


5,6-dichloro-1-β-d-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole. _Biochemistry_ 19, 2743–2748 (1980). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Jonkers, I. & Lis, J. T. Getting up to speed with


transcription elongation by RNA polymerase II. _Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol._ 16, 167–177 (2015). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Sekimizu, K., Kobayashi, N., Mizuno, D.


& Natori, S. Purification of a factor from Ehrlich ascites tumor cells specifically stimulating RNA polymerase II. _Biochemistry_ 15, 5064–5070 (1976). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google


Scholar  * Fish, R. N. & Kane, C. M. Promoting elongation with transcript cleavage stimulatory factors. _Biochim. Biophys. Acta_ 1577, 287–307 (2002). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google


Scholar  * Reines, D., Ghanouni, P., Li, Q. Q. & Mote, J. Jr. The RNA polymerase II elongation complex. Factor-dependent transcription elongation involves nascent RNA cleavage. _J. Biol.


Chem._ 267, 15516–15522 (1992). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Reines, D. Elongation factor-dependent transcript shortening by template-engaged RNA polymerase II. _J. Biol. Chem._


267, 3795–3800 (1992). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Izban, M. G. & Luse, D. S. The RNA polymerase II ternary complex cleaves the nascent transcript in a 3′→5′ direction in the


presence of elongation factor SII. _Genes Dev._ 6, 1342–1356 (1992). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Churchman, L. S. & Weissman, J. S. Nascent transcript sequencing visualizes


transcription at nucleotide resolution. _Nature_ 469, 368–373 (2011). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Sheridan, R. M., Fong, N., D’Alessandro, A. & Bentley, D. L. widespread


backtracking by RNA Pol II is a major effector of gene activation, 5′ pause release, termination, and transcription elongation rate. _Mol. Cell_ 73, 107–118.e4 (2019). Article  CAS  PubMed 


Google Scholar  * Lemay, J. F. et al. The RNA exosome promotes transcription termination of backtracked RNA polymerase II. _Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol._ 21, 919–926 (2014). Article  CAS  PubMed


  Google Scholar  * Nechaev, S. et al. Global analysis of short RNAs reveals widespread promoter-proximal stalling and arrest of Pol II in _Drosophila_. _Science_ 327, 335–338 (2010).


Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Adelman, K. et al. Efficient release from promoter-proximal stall sites requires transcript cleavage factor TFIIS. _Mol. Cell_ 17, 103–112 (2005).


Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Sigurdsson, S., Dirac-Svejstrup, A. B. & Svejstrup, J. Q. Evidence that transcript cleavage is essential for RNA polymerase II transcription and


cell viability. _Mol. Cell_ 38, 202–210 (2010). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Gamba, P. & Zenkin, N. Transcription fidelity and its roles in the cell. _Curr.


Opin. Microbiol._ 42, 13–18 (2018). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Irvin, J. D. et al. A genetic assay for transcription errors reveals multilayer control of RNA


polymerase II fidelity. _PLoS Genet._ 10, e1004532 (2014). Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar  * Gout, J. F. et al. The landscape of transcription errors in eukaryotic


cells. _Sci. Adv._ 3, e1701484 (2017). Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar  * Sawadogo, M. & Sentenac, A. RNA polymerase B (II) and general transcription factors. _Annu.


Rev. Biochem._ 59, 711–754 (1990). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Conaway, R. C., Garrett, K. P., Hanley, J. P. & Conaway, J. W. Mechanism of promoter selection by RNA


polymerase II: mammalian transcription factors α and β γ promote entry of polymerase into the preinitiation complex. _Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA_ 88, 6205–6209 (1991). Article  CAS  PubMed 


PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Bradsher, J. N., Jackson, K. W., Conaway, R. C. & Conaway, J. W. RNA polymerase II transcription factor SIII. I. Identification, purification, and


properties. _J. Biol. Chem._ 268, 25587–25593 (1993). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Bradsher, J. N., Tan, S., McLaury, H.-J., Conaway, J. W. & Conaway, R. C. RNA polymerase II


transcription factor SIII. II. Functional properties and role in RNA chain elongation. _J. Biol. Chem._ 268, 25594–25603 (1993). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Shilatifard, A.,


Lane, W. S., Jackson, K. W., Conaway, R. C. & Conaway, J. W. An RNA polymerase II elongation factor encoded by the human ELL gene. _Science_ 271, 1873–1876 (1996). Article  CAS  PubMed 


Google Scholar  * Simone, F. et al. EAF1, a novel ELL-associated factor that is delocalized by expression of the MLL-ELL fusion protein. _Blood_ 98, 201–209 (2001). Article  CAS  PubMed 


Google Scholar  * Simone, F., Luo, R. T., Polak, P. E., Kaberlein, J. J. & Thirman, M. J. ELL-associated factor 2 (EAF2), a functional homolog of EAF1 with alternative ELL binding


properties. _Blood_ 101, 2355–2362 (2003). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Kong, S. E., Banks, C. A. S., Shilatifard, A., Conaway, J. W. & Conaway, R. C. ELL-associated factors 1


and 2 are positive regulators of RNA polymerase II elongation factor ELL. _Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA_ 102, 10094–10098 (2005). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Price,


D. H., Sluder, A. E. & Greenleaf, A. L. Dynamic interaction between a _Drosophila_ transcription factor and RNA polymerase II. _Mol. Cell. Biol._ 9, 1465–1475 (1989). CAS  PubMed 


PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Bengal, E., Flores, O., Krauskopf, A., Reinberg, D. & Aloni, Y. Role of the mammalian transcription factors IIF, IIS, and IIX during elongation by RNA


polymerase II. _Mol. Cell. Biol._ 11, 1195–1206 (1991). CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Shilatifard, A., Conaway, R. C. & Conaway, J. W. The RNA polymerase II elongation


complex. _Annu. Rev. Biochem._ 72, 693–715 (2003). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Yan, Q., Moreland, R. J., Conaway, J. W. & Conaway, R. C. Dual roles for transcription factor


IIF in promoter escape by RNA polymerase II. _J. Biol. Chem._ 274, 35668–35675 (1999). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Joo, Y. J., Ficarro, S. B., Chun, Y., Marto, J. A. &


Buratowski, S. In vitro analysis of RNA polymerase II elongation complex dynamics. _Genes Dev._ 33, 578–589 (2019). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Gerber, M. et al.


In vivo requirement of the RNA polymerase II elongation factor elongin A for proper gene expression and development. _Mol. Cell. Biol._ 24, 9911–9919 (2004). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed


Central  Google Scholar  * Eissenberg, J. C. et al. dELL is an essential RNA polymerase II elongation factor with a general role in development. _Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA_ 99, 9894–9899


(2002). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Mitani, K. et al. Nonredundant roles of the elongation factor MEN in postimplantation development. _Biochem. Biophys. Res.


Commun._ 279, 563–567 (2000). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Yasukawa, T. et al. Transcriptional elongation factor elongin A regulates retinoic acid-induced gene expression during


neuronal differentiation. _Cell Rep._ 2, 1129–1136 (2012). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Gerber, M. et al. Regulation of heat shock gene expression by RNA polymerase II elongation


factor, Elongin A. _J. Biol. Chem._ 280, 4017–4020 (2005). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Kawauchi, J. et al. Transcriptional properties of mammalian elongin A and its role in


stress response. _J. Biol. Chem._ 288, 24302–24315 (2013). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Chopra, V. S., Hong, J. W. & Levine, M. Regulation of Hox gene activity


by transcriptional elongation in _Drosophila_. _Curr. Biol._ 19, 688–693 (2009). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Ardehali, M. B. et al. Polycomb repressive complex 2


methylates Elongin A to regulate transcription. _Mol. Cell_ 68, 872–884.e6 (2017). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Kamura, T. et al. Muf1, a novel Elongin


BC-interacting leucine-rich repeat protein that can assemble with Cul5 and Rbx1 to reconstitute a ubiquitin ligase. _J. Biol. Chem._ 276, 29748–29753 (2001). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google


Scholar  * Selth, L. A., Sigurdsson, S. & Svejstrup, J. Q. Transcript elongation by RNA polymerase II. _Annu. Rev. Biochem._ 79, 271–293 (2010). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  *


Kamura, T. et al. The Elongin BC complex interacts with the conserved SOCS-box motif present in members of the SOCS, ras, WD-40 repeat, and ankyrin repeat families. _Genes Dev._ 12,


3872–3881 (1998). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Kamura, T. et al. Rbx1, a component of the VHL tumor suppressor complex and SCF ubiquitin ligase. _Science_ 284,


657–661 (1999). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Okumura, F., Matsuzaki, M., Nakatsukasa, K. & Kamura, T. The role of Elongin BC-containing ubiquitin ligases. _Front. Oncol._ 2,


10 (2012). Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Ribar, B., Prakash, L. & Prakash, S. ELA1 and CUL3 are required along with ELC1 for RNA polymerase II polyubiquitylation and


degradation in DNA-damaged yeast cells. _Mol. Cell. Biol._ 27, 3211–3216 (2007). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Yasukawa, T. et al. Mammalian Elongin A complex


mediates DNA-damage-induced ubiquitylation and degradation of Rpb1. _EMBO J._ 27, 3256–3266 (2008). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Harreman, M. et al. Distinct


ubiquitin ligases act sequentially for RNA polymerase II polyubiquitylation. _Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA_ 106, 20705–20710 (2009). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  *


Weems, J. C. et al. Assembly of the Elongin A ubiquitin ligase is regulated by genotoxic and other stresses. _J. Biol. Chem._ 290, 15030–15041 (2015). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central 


Google Scholar  * Weems, J. C. et al. Cockayne syndrome B protein regulates recruitment of the Elongin A ubiquitin ligase to sites of DNA damage. _J. Biol. Chem._ 292, 6431–6437 (2017).


Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Boetefuer, E. L., Lake, R. J. & Fan, H. Y. Mechanistic insights into the regulation of transcription and transcription-coupled DNA


repair by Cockayne syndrome protein B. _Nucleic Acids Res._ 46, 7471–7479 (2018). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Wang, W., Xu, J., Chong, J. & Wang, D.


Structural basis of DNA lesion recognition for eukaryotic transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair. _DNA Repair (Amst.)_ 71, 43–55 (2018). Article  CAS  Google Scholar  * Dahmus, M.


E. Reversible phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II. _J. Biol. Chem._ 271, 19009–19012 (1996). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Marshall, N. F. & Price, D.


H. Purification of P-TEFb, a transcription factor required for the transition into productive elongation. _J. Biol. Chem._ 270, 12335–12338 (1995). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  *


Zhu, Y. et al. Transcription elongation factor P-TEFb is required for HIV-1 tat transactivation in vitro. _Genes Dev._ 11, 2622–2632 (1997). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google


Scholar  * Peng, J., Marshall, N. F. & Price, D. H. Identification of a cyclin subunit required for the function of _Drosophila_ P-TEFb. _J. Biol. Chem._ 273, 13855–13860 (1998). Article


  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Wada, T. et al. DSIF, a novel transcription elongation factor that regulates RNA polymerase II processivity, is composed of human Spt4 and Spt5 homologs.


_Genes Dev._ 12, 343–356 (1998). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Yamaguchi, Y. et al. NELF, a multisubunit complex containing RD, cooperates with DSIF to repress RNA


polymerase II elongation. _Cell_ 97, 41–51 (1999). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Swanson, M. S. & Winston, F. SPT4, SPT5 and SPT6 interactions: effects on transcription and


viability in _Saccharomyces cerevisiae_. _Genetics_ 132, 325–336 (1992). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Fujinaga, K. et al. Dynamics of human immunodeficiency virus


transcription: P-TEFb phosphorylates RD and dissociates negative effectors from the transactivation response element. _Mol. Cell. Biol._ 24, 787–795 (2004). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed


Central  Google Scholar  * Yamada, T. et al. P-TEFb-mediated phosphorylation of hSpt5 C-terminal repeats is critical for processive transcription elongation. _Mol. Cell_ 21, 227–237 (2006).


Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Lin, C. et al. AFF4, a component of the ELL/P-TEFb elongation complex and a shared subunit of MLL chimeras, can link transcription elongation to


leukemia. _Mol. Cell_ 37, 429–437 (2010). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * He, N. et al. HIV-1 Tat and host AFF4 recruit two transcription elongation factors into a


bifunctional complex for coordinated activation of HIV-1 transcription. _Mol. Cell_ 38, 428–438 (2010). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Sobhian, B. et al. HIV-1 Tat


assembles a multifunctional transcription elongation complex and stably associates with the 7SK snRNP. _Mol. Cell_ 38, 439–451 (2010). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  *


Takahashi, H. et al. Human mediator subunit MED26 functions as a docking site for transcription elongation factors. _Cell_ 146, 92–104 (2011). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google


Scholar  * Lin, C. et al. Dynamic transcriptional events in embryonic stem cells mediated by the super elongation complex (SEC). _Genes Dev._ 25, 1486–1498 (2011). Article  CAS  PubMed 


PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Galbraith, M. D. et al. HIF1A employs CDK8-mediator to stimulate RNAPII elongation in response to hypoxia. _Cell_ 153, 1327–1339 (2013). Article  CAS 


PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Wan, L. et al. ENL links histone acetylation to oncogenic gene expression in acute myeloid leukaemia. _Nature_ 543, 265–269 (2017). Article  CAS 


PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Liang, K. et al. Targeting processive transcription elongation via SEC disruption for MYC-induced cancer therapy. _Cell_ 175, 766–779.e17 (2018).


Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Marschalek, R. Mixed lineage leukemia: roles in human malignancies and potential therapy. _FEBS J._ 277, 1822–1831 (2010). Article 


CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Yokoyama, A., Lin, M., Naresh, A., Kitabayashi, I. & Cleary, M. L. A higher-order complex containing AF4 and ENL family proteins with P-TEFb facilitates


oncogenic and physiologic MLL-dependent transcription. _Cancer Cell_ 17, 198–212 (2010). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Lin, C., Garruss, A. S., Luo, Z., Guo, F.


& Shilatifard, A. The RNA Pol II elongation factor Ell3 marks enhancers in ES cells and primes future gene activation. _Cell_ 152, 144–156 (2013). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  *


Peterlin, B. M. & Price, D. H. Controlling the elongation phase of transcription with P-TEFb. _Mol. Cell_ 23, 297–305 (2006). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * Lens, Z. et al.


Solution structure of the N-terminal domain of Mediator subunit MED26 and molecular characterization of its interaction with EAF1 and TAF7. _J. Mol. Biol._ 429, 3043–3055 (2017). Article 


CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  * He, N. et al. Human polymerase-associated factor complex (PAFc) connects the super elongation complex (SEC) to RNA polymerase II on chromatin. _Proc. Natl


Acad. Sci. USA_ 108, E636–E645 (2011). CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Yadav, D., Ghosh, K., Basu, S., Roeder, R. G. & Biswas, D. Multivalent role of human TFIID in


recruiting elongation components at the promoter-proximal region for transcriptional control. _Cell Rep._ 26, 1303–1317.e7 (2019). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Li,


Y. et al. Molecular coupling of histone crotonylation and active transcription by AF9 YEATS domain. _Mol. Cell_ 62, 181–193 (2016). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  *


Smith, E. R. et al. The little elongation complex regulates small nuclear RNA transcription. _Mol. Cell_ 44, 954–965 (2011). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar  * Hu, D. et


al. The little elongation complex functions at initiation and elongation phases of snRNA gene transcription. _Mol. Cell_ 51, 493–505 (2013). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google


Scholar  * Egloff, S. et al. The 7SK snRNP associates with the little elongation complex to promote snRNA gene expression. _EMBO J._ 36, 934–948 (2017). Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central


  Google Scholar  * Takahashi, H. et al. MED26 regulates the transcription of snRNA genes through the recruitment of little elongation complex. _Nat. Commun._ 6, 5941 (2015). Article  CAS 


PubMed  Google Scholar  Download references ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank J. Weems for help with figures and all of the many colleagues who have contributed to our laboratory’s research on Pol


II elongation over the years. Because of length limitations, we have not provided exhaustive references and in some cases have cited reviews rather than primary papers. We apologize to those


whose contributions to the primary literature were not cited. AUTHOR INFORMATION AUTHORS AND AFFILIATIONS * Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA Ronald C. Conaway 


& Joan W. Conaway * Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA Ronald C. Conaway & Joan W. Conaway Authors * Ronald


C. Conaway View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Joan W. Conaway View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed 


Google Scholar CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Correspondence to Joan W. Conaway. ETHICS DECLARATIONS COMPETING INTERESTS The authors declare no competing interests. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION PEER REVIEW


INFORMATION: Beth Moorefield was the primary editor on this article and managed its editorial process and peer review in collaboration with the rest of the editorial team. PUBLISHER’S NOTE:


Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS Reprints and permissions ABOUT THIS ARTICLE CITE


THIS ARTICLE Conaway, R.C., Conaway, J.W. The hunt for RNA polymerase II elongation factors: a historical perspective. _Nat Struct Mol Biol_ 26, 771–776 (2019).


https://doi.org/10.1038/s41594-019-0283-1 Download citation * Received: 10 June 2019 * Accepted: 18 July 2019 * Published: 22 August 2019 * Issue Date: September 2019 * DOI:


https://doi.org/10.1038/s41594-019-0283-1 SHARE THIS ARTICLE Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Get shareable link Sorry, a shareable link is not


currently available for this article. Copy to clipboard Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative


Trending News

Trump pledges support for u. S. Intelligence agencies, bashes press at cia speech

President Donald Trump visited CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, on Saturday and gave a speech pledging full White ...

Technology's tortoise and hare

The Sociological dynamics are now right for the electric car to eclipse its rival. Access through your institution Buy o...

What to Do and Where to Eat in the Bahamas

By AARP   Published June 21, 2022 Beaches Bahamians are beach snobs, straight up — and justifiably so. If they can’t see...

Marjorie Hershey – The Conversation

Profile Articles Activity Professor Hershey's research and teaching interests focus on political parties, campaigns...

Sanctuary Perry - The Texas Observer

_GOV. RICK PERRY OF TEXAS, HIS POLITICAL POPULARITY BADLY diminished by anti-tax policies that led to record budget defi...

Latests News

The hunt for rna polymerase ii elongation factors: a historical perspective

ABSTRACT The discovery of the three eukaryotic nuclear RNA polymerases paved the way for serious biochemical investigati...

Covid testing labs popping up in downtown aspen

* COLLECTION SPECIALIST FOR ASPEN COVID TESTING PERFORMS A TEST ON CO-OWNER SUZANNA LEE IN THE CENTER ON FRIDAY, JAN. 22...

Financial stress index hits scary level

The St. Louis Fed's Financial Stress Index has shot upward in the past few months. Instead of going into the detail...

Free tuition proposed for community college students transferring to cal state

In yet another push to make higher education more accessible in California, a bill filed in the state Legislature would ...

New report reveals why bill barr didn't want to get caught anywhere with matt gaetz

Rep. Matt Gaetz's name has been in the headlines a lot this week — not only in connection with an Axios report that...

Top